Parent instinct vs. government policy 親の直感 vs. 政府の政策

下に、Googleが和訳したものに若干修正を加えて貼り付けます。

The other day, I overheard a group of young children playing and talking to each other in Taiwanese Hokkien (hereafter Taiwanese). This is very rare in Taipei City nowadays. Besides them a group of young mothers were talking to each other in Taiwanese. This is even rarer. A few moments before that, I had witnessed a young Taiwanese mother talking to her young child in Taiwan-accented English, and the child answering back in an impeccable American accent. This is increasingly not rare. Parent instinct for prestige in languages is stronger than government language policies.

The fact that the young mothers were chatting in Taiwanese, which is not a common thing to do at all in Taipei, shows that they have a strong language ideology, and made extra effort to ensure their children also spoke in Taiwanese. They themselves must have grown up speaking Mandarin as their primary language. But their ideology was strong enough to compel them to want to pass on Taiwanese to the next generation. This is quite rare. The children will likely become fluent speakers of Taiwanese, but as they grow up, Mandarin is likely to become their main language for socialization, since you don't get much socialization in Taiwanese in Taipei, especially among that age group. All this is in spite of the government spending huge amount of money and effort to promote Taiwanese.

On the other hand, most parents naturally choose whatever language they think is more advantageous for their children. This is why it's more and more common to see Taiwanese families picking up English as their home language. This trend would continue, even if the government was discouraging this practice. All the more, since the government actually isn't discouraging it. Parents' instinct for a prestigious language is normally stronger than government policies. 

先日、台湾の泉漳語（以下、台湾語）で遊んだり話したりしている幼い子供たちのグループを耳にしました。これは、今日の台北市では非常にまれです。それらに加えて、若い母親のグループが台湾語で互いに話していました。これはさらにまれです。その少し前に、台湾の若い母親が台湾訛りの英語で幼い子供と話しているのを目撃しました。子供は非の打ちどころのないアメリカ訛りで返事をしました。これはますます珍しいことではありません。言語における名声に対する親の本能は、政府の言語政策よりも強力です。

若い母親が台湾語でおしゃべりをしているという事実は、台北ではまったく一般的ではありませんが、彼らが強い言語イデオロギーを持っていることを示しており、子供たちも台湾語で話せるように特別な努力をしました。彼ら自身が彼らの第一言語として北京語を話すように成長したに違いありません。しかし、彼らのイデオロギーは、台湾語を次世代に引き継ぐことを強いるほど強力でした。これは非常にまれです。子供たちは台湾語を流暢に話すようになるでしょうが、彼らが成長するにつれて、特にその年齢層の間で、台北では台湾語では社交があまりないので、北京語が社交の主要言語になる可能性があります。これはすべて、政府が台湾語を促進するために莫大な金額と努力を費やしているにもかかわらずです。

一方、ほとんどの親は、子供にとってより有利であると考える言語を自然に選択します。これが、台湾の家族が母国語として英語を採用するのを見ることがますます一般的になっている理由です。たとえ政府がこの慣行を思いとどまらせていたとしても、この傾向は続くでしょう。政府は実際にそれを思いとどまらせていないので、なおさらです。一流の言語に対する親の本能は、通常、政府の政策よりも強力です。

U.S. “spy” plane over Au-káng-kîⁿ?

 民國34年美軍拍的後港墘 (English follows below)

看得出277巷是「重要幹道」！

景祐宮不在現在的位置（你們當然知道）

後港當時是社子的一部份（講「同安腔」的，別於士林街的漳腔）

另外，酒店內和三角埔都在「後港生活圈」內

An aerial photo of Āu-káng-kîⁿ taken by US forces in 1945

You can see that Lane 277 was THE major thoroughfare!

And the temple in the corner wasn’t there. (Of course, you guys remember that!)

Au-káng was part of Siā-á back then (this explains your Tang-oaⁿ accent 😆) and the area of activity mainly extended north-south along the river.

Is a well-estabished community language an obstacle to second language learning?

I have heard some people say that the people in Japan, Korea and Taiwan are not as good in English as those in Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, etc. because the national languages of the former are too well-established and don't allow room for English. It's obvious this theory doesn't stand. What about Sweden, the Netherlands, etc. where the "national" languages are well-established and standardized, but people are phenomenal in English? What about Thailand? I think Thai people are as proud of their wonderful language as the Taiwanese are about Mandarin, and as insistent in using it to communicate with any foreigner who even has a tiniest bit knowledge of it, and yet do quite well in English? Conversely, what about Malaysia, which had once succeeded in codifying its national languages and even made it the sole medium of instruction in tertiary education in the 1980s, but then turned back to English afterwards?

But it is useful to know that for the majorities of people around the world, their "mother tongue" is not the same as the one that's taught in schools. Cases like Japan and Korea, where most people speak the same language at home and school and work and everywhere else, are really rare. It is a highly artificial situation, influenced by the nation-state ideology originated from Europe, i.e. France. It took many years and much effort on the part of the government of Japan, for example, to eliminate all "dialects" to arrive at the perceived "monolingual" state of today. In many countries, there are many languages that are spoken but not standardized enough to be used as a medium of instruction at school. It is expensive to develop those languages and compile textbooks in them. And most of those countries are poor. So the teaching has to be continued in their former colonial language, usually English, French or Portuguese, because materials are more readily available. (The situation in most former Spanish colonies is a bit different, because Spanish has already become the native language of the majority of people.) This creates many problems, of course. One is that it unfairly advantages rich people in urban areas, who have more access to English. (Or French for that matter.) And studies overwhelmingly show that people learn better when they are taught in the language they speak at home, or the one that's widely spoken in the community.

That leaves us with the discussion of the countries that have chosen one of the local languages as the national language. These countries can be classified into two types, I think. The type one are those which have already successfully developed and propagated that language, so much so that other languages originally used are dying out. The other are those which have taken more laissez-faire approach. Thailand is one example of the former. The government has standardized the language and developed enough vocabulary, so almost everything can be done in midland Thai. Many non-Thai speaking peoples first became bilingual in their own language and Thai, and then the young generation grew up knowing only Thai. Politically, Thai was propagated as the symbol national unity. So people started to feel very proud about this language. Minority languages became more marginalized, or even died out.

An example of the latter is the Philippines. Even though the constitution says English and Filipino are official languages, and bilingual elementary education in a local language and Filipino are propagated, it's largely up to each individual to choose which language to do what. As a result, a child from a upper middle-class Manila family may grow up speaking English or "Taglish" as his home, school and community language, all at the same time. On the other hand, another child from a remote area might speak his mother tongue at home, a regional lingua franca like Cebuano to be his community language, Filipino and English as his school languages. Obviously, under normal circumstances, it is so much harder for the second child to do well at school. Nowadays, because of the influence of the electronic media, Tagalog seems to be the winner in this laissez-faire competition. Even people from very remote places can now speak at least some Tagalog. Overseas Filipino Workers who have different first languages also seem to use Tagalog as the lingua franca once away from home.

Now which one is Taiwan, anyway? I think Taiwan was on the way to Type 1, then turned Type 2, but it's too late. During the authoritarian era, the government tried to eliminate "dialects" and promote Mandarin. The high-handed method of giving "dog tags" for those who didn't conform to this rule is notorious. When Taiwan was democratized, it moved on to a more laissez-faire style, with a renaissance of non-Mandarin languages, especially Hokkien and Hakka. But I think it's a bit too late. Very few of my students can converse fluently in Hokkien. Quite a few of them don't understand any at all, even if they are ethnically Hokkien. It's paradoxical, because those are the guys who went to elementary schools when "Mother Tongue" was already a compulsory subject. Hokkien might go down the way of the Irish language in Ireland. Significant things can be said only in English there.

I want to talk more about medium of instruction issue. I hope I'll get to doing it soon.

Is there still any point in teaching RP?

Some years back, I was attending a conference in Taiwan, listening to a senior Taiwanese scholar present on the Received Pronunciation (RP). It is roughly the same as "BBC accent" or "posh Southeastern English accent". The presenter said only 1% of the British population spoke with such accent. And yet he recommended it be taught to learners in Taiwan. So, during the Q&A session, I asked: If there are so few people using it, why should we teach it? Then my boss sitting next to me covertly reminded me that it was impolite to ask questions to senior presenters during Q&A sessions, so I backed off.

And to answer this question now myself, I think there is still a value in exposing learners to the RP, even though it's a dying (?) accent in England.

Even though RP has long lost its prestige in England, it is still widely taught to "foreigners", especially in Europe. So you are likely to come across a second-language speaker of English with an RP-inspired accent. In Hong Kong, Singapore, India and other Anglophone countries in Asia (with the exception of the Philippines), the teaching model at schools still derive from the RP. But many Taiwanese learners, especially those at lower proficiency levels, are quite unfamiliar with anything other than the idealized General American pronunciation. So they find it rather hard to understand second-language speakers who have learned British English back in their home countries.

Despite the fact that its speakers are considered "affected" and "cold" within the UK itself, the RP is a well-documented accent. There are many dictionaries and ESL textbooks that use this pronunciation, including authoritative ones like Daniel Jones's English Pronouncing Dictionary. Those are handy for teachers when they are not sure about pronunciation. On the other hand, most American dictionaries don't prescribe any one particular pronunciation. The phonetic symbols they use are designed to allow room for variation. Although language is and always will be varied (and that's the beauty of it), but that's not necessarily a comfortable situation for teachers looking for something "definitive". (Especially so for "non-native" teachers, who feel insecure for their perceived lack the authoritativeness as an authentic source of English.)

Plus, the RP has retained its prestige, in out of all places, America. I've seen many TV programs, commercials and movies where (fake) posh British accent is used for some supposedly positive effect. Even though very few people in Britain actually speak like that, Americans seem to associate it with some kind of fancy/fanciful European stuff. So if you are thinking of going to America, having an RP sort of accent might help. I must add though, that this might not apply if you are not European. My experience is that some Americans are not as favorable to non-whites with a British-derived accent. Maybe they notice you look like a foreigner and have an "unusual" accent, so they just conclude that you have a "foreign" accent. (Across the border in Canada, though, I notice that some people expect "foreigners" to be taught British English, even if their own variety is so much closer to that of the US.)

But in the context of Taiwan, all I'm saying is we should expose learners more to different accents including the RP, which is quite useful because it's taught to international learners. I'm not saying that they should all try to sound like the Queen with an exaggerated "aristocratic" intonation. Don't do this all the more if you are going to the UK. There, people with regional working class or black accents are considered cool nowadays. I'm saying that you will find it becomes easier for you to understand people from many different countries speaking English, once you are familiar with what they are being taught at school: the RP.

Resisting the "accentism" in Taiwan

This post is about accentism in English in Taiwan. There is a whole lot of issues regarding the accentism in Mandarin/Hokkien in Taiwan. Hopefully, I'll get to write about it one day!

In this post I will discuss briefly the following three issues: whether we should be teaching students what is considered in the society to be a "less than ideal" accent; why local accents are always belittled; how accentism is related to racism.

I have argued that students should be equipped to communicate with people from all over the world, particularly Asia, and not only with the native speakers of English. As I have been telling you, this means de-emphasizing nativelikeness in pronunciation teaching, as native-speaker accents are not suited for lingua franca communication. Some people have told me: "But, petekobe, don't you think we're shortchanging the students by not teaching them the most privileged accent, i.e. the native-speaker accents? If they go to a job interview in the future, they'll be disadvantaged if they had a weird accent."

My response is: No. We are not helping the society change its unfounded prejudices in accents by conforming to those prejudices. Let me use an analogy. You and I know that the mainstream society is biased against, say, black people. Would you advise a black student who is going to a job interview to paint his face white, so that he will stand a better chance of getting hired?

How the society privileges one accent and belittles others are based on how people associate certain accents with certain groups of people, and how they think about those groups. It has nothing to do with intrinsic linguistic qualities of any variety. It is absolutely untrue to say, therefore, that an American accent is superior than, say, Singapore accent, because the former is clearer, more accurate, more correct, etc. A Singaporean can do an excellent job communicating with another Singaporean in English, regardless of what an overhearing American thinks of their English. So, if someone thinks that a native-like north American accent is "class" and pleasant; and a very proficient and effective communicator with a trace of Korean or Chinese accent is unpleasant, less fluent, etc., it's to do with how you are socially conditioned. Prejudices are prejudices, and should be treated as such. There's no need to conform to it. It will not help students in the long run.

Now you may say: "Yeah, but it's the Taiwanese themselves who are looking down on their own accent." I agree. Just listen to those ads for language centers on ICRT. So many of them are about how shameful it is to speak Taiwan English, and how they can drop it by enrolling to those centers where they will be taught by "real 道地口音 native-speakers". The same problem seems to be prevalent even in nearby places where the local varieties of English are robustly functioning, like Hong Kong and the Philippines. Why do people look down on the accents of their own kinds?

The privileging of native-speaker accents and belittling of local accents reflect how people perceive the economic structure in the society. In order for you to have a nativelike, say, Canadian accent, either your parents have to be affluent enough to have sent you to Canada as a 小留學生 when you are eight years old, or at least be able to send you to a reputable buxiban. Certainly, if you were educated in the regular Taiwanese system, and you really tried hard in your English, you should sound like a regular Taiwanese person who can speak English well, but not like a "true native speaker". Because once past the "critical period", you have little chance of attaining a native speaker accent, if not other areas of linguistic competence.

So it is no wonder that the ELT industry (language centers, buxibans, etc.) has to propagate the idea that the only way to be successful in learning English is to master a native-like accent. And it is a good news for them that few people are likely to reach that goal, because they'll keep paying and paying the tuition in the hope that they will succeed one day! (The sad fact, though, is that many of them get discouraged and give up English altogether.)

On a final note, I want to talk a bit about how some people listen with their eyes and not with ears. Everybody has heard anecdotes along the line of a white Ukrainian getting hired as an English teacher, while a British native speaker of South Asian descent is turned away. I also heard that an Asian-British teacher with a posh RP-style accent always got complaints from students regarding his accent, while his white colleague with a strong northern England accent got none! One even gets an impression: If it is a white person speaking and learners find it hard to understand him, they'll blame themselves for their English not up to the standard; while if it's a non-老外 whom they're having trouble understanding, they'll blame it on the "weird" accent that their interlocutor has. Don't get me wrong. I'm not saying that a Ukrainian shouldn't be hired as an English teacher. More often than not, they are no less good English teachers than Canadians or South Africans. Their grammar and vocabulary may even be better than an average native speaker, and I have repeated many times that a native-speaker accent is not important. What I want to draw your attention to, however, is how arbitrary and baseless some judgments people make about accents are. Presuming that most employers in Taiwan have proclivity toward native speakers, this hiring person may not have noticed the "non-nativeness" of the Ukrainian because of what she looked like. And the very same person may well become very picky, if the candidate was a non-老外-looking person!

Non-rhoticity: A sign of failure?

Another interesting conversation I had, this time with Taiwanese linguists, at IAWE Hong Kong.

One of them said: "I noticed that you have a British accent." So he noticed my non-rhoticity and connected that with a British accent. This is not surprising; after all, he's a specialist.

"But many students in Taiwan don't make that connection," I said. "They just think that I'm a poor speaker of English, just because I don't roll my /r/ like their junior high school teachers did."

He said something very important. He said the pronunciation of rhotic /r/ is so emphasized in Taiwan's English teaching that non-rhoticity is considered a failure in an attempt to produce it!

Unless you are a Caucasian from the UK, South Africa, New Zealand, etc., that is. (People often listen with their eyes, more than they do with ears.)

Indeed, in a book called "KK音標速成秘笈", the author says:
中國學生（尤其是說閩南語的同學）發此音時，舌頭大都不夠捲，也不夠軟，而中國北方省份的居民，如北平人，發此音就發得很好。若想把美語說得「溜」就得每天花一點時間練習這個音 (p. 50)

On another page he also says:
每天練習國語的注音符號「ㄦ」的聲音，可使舌頭變得較靈活。另外準備一面小鏡子觀察自己發音時的嘴型。(p. 25)

So I did a little experiment in one of my classes. I played a recording of a very typically British RP-sounding speaker, and showed them a picture of a Japanese guy at the same time. Then I asked them what they thought about the accent.

They said "Horrible! This guy's got to do something about his strong Japanese accent!" or something similar!

By the way, the above author says in his book that when he was growing up as a child, his parents were speaking in a "foreign language". (Of course he can't say they were speaking in Japanese! He's an English teacher for goodness' sake!) That's probably why he was drilled by his Mandarin teachers to pronounce the "ㄦ" correctly. So he transferred that to English.

So then, this has got all to do with the "正音 Ideology", then. Well, that's another topic.

In the meantime, if I want to keep my job as an English teacher, I should better get in front of a mirror and start going: "rr, rrr, rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr!"

Trilingual medical personnel in Taiwan

Medical personnel in Taiwan are at least trilingual. At the physical theapy room in a hospital where I visit twice a week, the language I hear most often is Taiwanese Hokkien. This is because most of the patients are elderly. The therapists communicate with them in Hokkien, of course, but I can tell that many of the young therapists are not very fluent in it. They must have grown up speaking almost exclusively Mandarin like other young people in Taiwan, and received special training in Hokkien to deal with Hokkien-monolingual patients. When they converse with other therapists regarding something they don't want their patients to overhear, for example someone's medical condition, they switch to English (Another instance of the boundary between the Outer and Expanding Circles being blurred). This is normal because medical training in Taiwan heavily use English. Aside from this, many doctors and nurses can speak Japanese as well.  I also know of some Filipino doctors practicing in Taiwan who are multilingual in this way. (They can speak Mandarin, Taiwanese-style Hokkien, as well as English, Filipino, Philippine-style Hokkien and perhaps even one more Philippine language!) I also know of a second-generation mainlander who had aspired to become a doctor in Taiwan, but gave up because of her failure to master Hokkien. It's difficult being a doctor in Taiwan and unable to speak Hokkien, because many patients are elderly.

Rhoticity makes you sound more fluent? From a former non-rhotician

I was reading this: http://www.antimoon.com/forum/t13547-0.htm

It was so interesting I just couldn't stop.

Since I can't post my comments there, I will answer the question here, then.

I used to sound non-rhotic, but now I'm more rhotic. I'm a Japanese person teaching English in Taiwan. My original accent was non-rhotic, because Japanese English is essentially non-rhotic, and I was taught British English. Most of my friends when I lived in northeastern England were from Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong, all of whom were non-rhotic (unless they were faking an American accent or something).

But I went rhotic after I came to Taiwan. There are several reasons to that. First, in Taiwan, rhotic seems to be the prestige accent. I once saw a book that taught KK音標, and it said you should pronounce the rolled /r/ because it will make you sound more 溜. (Actually, this is one of the reasons why many non-rhotic foreigners think Taiwanese people sound caricature American.) People thought my accent was 不標準 when they heard my non-rhotic English and concluded it was because I was Japanese, not because I was trying to sound British. Third, Jennifer Jenkins said rhotic was more intelligible in lingua franca communication. I guess that's true, because we Asians generally learn how to spell English words before we learn how to pronounce them. It seems more "logical" to me to insert an r sound when there is an r in spelling. And in RP, there is the inconsistency of having to pronounce the r when the next word starts with a vowel. Lastly, I lived in the Philippines for almost three years and have lots of Filipino friends. In the Philippines, people, especially those with lower English proficiency, have difficulty understanding you if you sound non-rhotic, perhaps because you sound so different from the way they are taught what English words sound like.

I do sound a lot more non-native when I sound rhotic (maybe because it was in the Philippines that I learned to sound rhotic), but my students seem to understand me much better when I sound rhotic. This is probably because they're familiar with what I call the "KK音標-inspired accent". And it doesn't matter if I sound non-native, not least because they thought I sounded non-native even back when I was trying to sound as British as possible in class, probably because of my Asian face and Japanese surname. (Besides, we all know that native speakers are only a minority of English speakers.)

I have noticed, though, I subconsciously switch back to non-rhotic in several situations. First, when I'm having very relaxed conversations with, say, my wife, I turn non-rhotic, because that's my original accent in the first place. I also turn non-rhotic when I have to "impress" someone with my "high class" British accent, especially when I have to talk to a teacher who, I feel, looks down on me because of my non-nativeness. (Isn't this the use of Bourdieu's "linguistic asset"?) Also, I tend to suddenly turn non-rhotic when talking to a non-rhotic interlocutor, for example, a Briton, perhaps as accommodation strategy. I sometimes notice that I’m speaking non-rhotic when conversing with other rhotic native speakers or fluent L2 speakers, probably because I know that they have high proficiency and subconsciously think that they shouldn’t have any problem deciphering me.

Consequently, the best place to hear me sounding rhotic is classrooms.

The dilemma is: I sound rhotic because I think students can understand me more easily; but students may think my English is limited because I sound more non-native when I’m rhotic.

One solution would be for me to pick up a native-like American accent. But I really can’t imagine myself doing that. I used to dislike my classmates who had an American accent and used to label them as fake Americans. And I don’t want to be a target of a terrorist attack when visiting some Islamic countries. 

Ode to "non-native" Englishes

We are not native speakers of English. So we don't sound like one. And we most likely never will, if we don't sound like one by now. But that's OK. There's no need.

There are more non-native speakers in the world than there are native speakers. So we are more likely to be using English with other non-native speakers than with native speakers (unless you immigrate to the US or get a job at the British Embassy or something). It is certainly the case with me. Few of my friends with whom I use English are native speakers (except my colleagues at school). I attend an international church where English is the practically the only language used, but very few in the congregation are native speakers of English. They seem to understand my Japan English without much difficulty.

It is probably not true that native-speaker varieties of English are the most widely understood. There are quite a few studies which found out that native-speaker varieties were actually harder to be understood in international communication. And I have attended many international conferences and meetings where native speakers were the only ones having trouble understanding and being understood. It's not hard to guess why. Many of them are so used to speaking in English that they speak so fast, and they don't enunciate clearly. And they use many local idioms and slangs that may be common in their own countries, but not outside. Some of them probably put the blame for communication breakdowns on the fact that our English is "not up to the standard". We know from studies that such an attitude interferes negatively with one's ability to understand.

Aside from being understood more easily in international communication, there are other benefits to sounding non-native. I feel more comfortable and psychologically stable when people can tell from my accent my cultural background. This way, I don't have to try to pretend to be someone else. It is tiring to sound like a native speaker. It is even worse sometimes even imitating native speakers' mannerisms, facial expressions, etc. (I think many fellow non-native teachers agree with me.) It is a futile effort. And it makes me feel stupid. Besides making me feel as if I was a copycat monkey (物まね小猿) in the English-speakingdom, it actually does make me sound more stupid, because I can't pay much attention to contents, grammar and lexis when I have to pay so much attention to native-like pronunciation.

Another thing is that it is dangerous nowadays to be mistaken as a native speakers of English in certain countries, especially in the Middle East, etc. But this is a sensitive issue, so I won't talk about it here then.

OK, so if we don't need to try to sound like a native speaker, how can we raise our success rate in international communication with other non-natives? Here are my thoughts.

From my experience, it is important to pronounce the words clearly. You should almost sound like "spelling pronunciation". This will certainly slow down your speech. You will also sound less "native-like" and more "foreign" to native ears. But that doesn't matter. People from different countries will understand you better.

Studies found that "syllable-timed" accents were easier to understand for non-native speakers. Syllable-timing means you give almost equal stress to every syllable in a word. So you sound like "cohn-grah-choo-lay-shee-ons" when you say "congratulations". Many proficient non-native speakers of English have syllable-timing. Yet, syllable-timing is one thing that will make you sound definitely non-native. You may feel you are less "cool" when you sound less like an American. But you have to realize that you will never sound completely like an American no matter how hard you try anyway. (Unless you have some special talent, that is. And if you do, you should perhaps consider becoming an actor.)

I think one of the reasons why "spelling pronunciation" or "syllable-timed" accents are easier to understand is because, especially here in East Asia, we learn how to spell and read English before we learn how to speak it (if we ever do)! When I was learning English as a young student, I always felt frustrated that English words never sounded like how they are spelt when pronounced by native speakers.

Another important thing is more of a psychological factor. It is called accommodation. It means you have to accept that people have different accents, and be willing to try hard to understand people with "unusual" or unfamiliar accents. This can happen only if people are constantly exposed to people with many different accents. The opposite happens when people are exposed only to limited varieties of accents. For example, many Taiwanese students are familiar only with a kind of American accent. So they may mistakenly think that is the only "standard" accent of English. And when they come across someone with a different accent, they naturally find it difficult to understand. This is usually because they subconsciously blame the other person for not having what they think is the "standard" accent. This causes them to give up efforts to understand too easily. The problem can be solved easily by constantly exposing learners to different accents.

It is encouraging to know that in many countries, like the Philippines, people are "functionally native" in English. It means that they use English among their own countrymen in certain domains. Even though the way they use English may be different from that of, say, Americans, and occasionally get laughed at for that, it nevertheless functions perfectly well as a lingua franca in those domains.

I often use English with my fellow East Asians including Koreans and Vietnamese, because it is often the only language we have in common. And it is very helpful that they find my Japanese rhetorical style and cultural references very similar to their own. The communication would be much more problematic if I spoke with an impeccable British/American English. Well, Asian Englishes is another topic so I will write about it some other time, then.

教室常見問題：英語學習篇。

很久沒有更新了。先轉載課堂上發的教室常見問題中，關於英語學習的部份，供大家討論：

Q: 如果每個星期都來上課，我的英文會進步嗎?

A: 不會，如果你只是來上課的時候才接觸英語的話。

外語能力要進步，必須每天至少學習半小時。一週只有兩小時的上課時間，幾乎不可能讓你的英語進步。上課時間主要是提供如何自習的指針而已。而關鍵在於自習。

如果你想讓你的英文進步，我建議每週至少5天，接觸至少半小時的英語。像「大家說英語」那類的雜誌非常好。

Q: 學校的英文課對TOEIC那樣的考試有幫助嗎?

A: 間接有幫助。

考試有分achievement test和proficiency test兩種。TOEIC是proficiency test。而銘傳的考試也偏proficiency test。意思就是TOEIC跟銘傳的考試都是要測試你平常的英語實力有多少。所以考前臨時讀書對分數的影響不大。唯一的例外是單字的部分。

Q: 我覺得我的英文「不標準」，是台式英語。怎麼辦?

A: 台灣人本來就該說台式英語。現在世界各地，特別是亞洲地區，把英語當共通語言；每一國人都為了保留自己風格，使用具有各地特色的英語，而不會刻意模仿美國人或英國人說的英語。這本來就是自然的現象。如果一個人，又不是美國人，也不住在美國，可是一開口就說純美式英語的話，不但很不自然，也可能被各國的人懷疑沒有建立起自己的文化認同，甚至被誤會你是支持美國在國際政治上的立場而導致危險。

現在世界的英語人口中，多數是以英語為第二語言的人。意思是說，如果生活上使用到英文，大多跟非母語的人溝通，而不是跟美國人。既然不是跟美國人，為什麼一定要用美式英語? 而且語言學家們研究發現，美式英語在國際溝通時，並不是最會通的；具有第二語言特色的英語，反而比較容易被聽懂。

可是請不要誤會，我說的台式英語，就是既具有台灣特色，又被國際聽懂的英語；而不是純粹有錯誤，造成對方霧煞煞的英語。後者一般被叫做 "Chinglish"，是我們應該避免的。上課的時候，老師會鼓勵Taiwan English，而糾正Chinglish.

Q: 我英文發音不好，怎麼辦?

A: 首先，你為什麼會覺得自己的發音不好呢? 如果你的發音不像美國人，或那很會卷舌的台籍補習班老師，並不一定代表你的發音不好。我的經驗是，大部分的台灣學生，發音不會有太嚴重的問題。老師只會在遇到可能導致對方誤會的發音問題的時候，才會糾正發音。（世界上多數人覺得很饒舌的怪音如 /th/，就算完全不會也幾乎不影響國際溝通。最多只有不懂社會語言學的同胞會嘲笑你而已。）

再說，發音在溝通時的重要性不是最高；字彙和句型的重要性遠比發音高。如果一個人太注意發音，他就沒辦法那麼注意字彙和文法，導致溝通上更嚴重的問題。反之，一旦接受自己特色的發音之後，你會發現自己的英文變得好流利。

Q: 上課時老師講一直講英文，我聽得不是很懂，怎麼辦?

A: 那恭喜你。只有不斷接觸大約60%聽懂的英文時，你的英文才可望進步。如果100%聽得懂，那就代表這個程度對你來說是太淺了；聽再久，你的英文不會再進步。為了不浪費你的錢和時間，請到「進階班」去。如果你是完全聽不懂，那麼這個程度對你來說太難了，聽再久也不會突然變成聽得懂。但因為英語課是必修，所以趕快找老師商量該怎麼補救吧。（可是依我的經驗，台灣的學生幾乎沒有完全聽不懂的。）

偏重母語人士的發音是錯誤的。The myth of native speaker accent

偏重母語人士的發音是錯誤的。

我發現很多台灣的朋友，都希望自己能說一口像美國人一樣「標準」的英文。他們的理由是這樣的「標準英文」，到全世界的那一個角落都行得通。可是對不起，他們錯了。有研究發現，母語人士（例如美國人、英國人等）的發音，在英語做為國際溝通語言的時候，並不是最容易被聽懂的！所以，如果老師教學生極力模仿母語人士的發音，將來他們在實際國際溝通的場合使用英語，可能會吃虧的。

以英語做為第二語言人士的發音，在國際溝通上更容易被了解的原因有幾個：

第一，第二語言人士的發音比起母語人士的發音更合理。

任何語言當然都有不規則的地方，學習者就是要把這些當作例外，死背下去。不過把英語當作第二語言學習的人，把英語很多不規則的地方加以規則化了。這樣的例子很多，在這裡我只舉一個。母語人士英語的發音是stress-timed；這就是說一個單字不管多長，通常只有一個重音。例如說，很多美國人發 “congratulations” 的音，只有一個重音，也就是第四個音節的la。其他的音節，不管拼法是o還是a還是u或者是ion，全部一樣都發成schwa，也就是類似注音符合ㄜ的音，只是發得很弱。不同拼法都發一樣的音，這說起來很不合理，難怪聽不清楚。另一方面，大部份把英語當作第二語言的人，母音怎麼拼就是怎麼發，所以o就發o的音，a就發a的音；除了比較合理之外，先學過英語拼法的人，更容易聽懂。菲律賓式英語發音是其中一個例子。就用一下common sense就知道，母語人士因為天天都跟母語人士在講英語，所以講得很快，而且咬字都不清楚。（可是在國際場合上人家聽不懂，他們會怪你的英文不夠好！）

第二，使用第二語言發音的人數較母語人是多。

目前很多人都很清楚，學習英語的目的，不只是為了跟美國人溝通，而是跟全世界溝通。而「全世界」的人，並不都是使用美式口音。目前全世界使用英語的人口，多數是把英語當作第二語言的人們；母語人士只是少數。例如說，印度，菲律賓等國家使用英語的人口，都比英國多；有學者們預測中國快要成為英語人口最多的國家。所以，將來工作上或生活上如果用得到英語，比較有可能跟第二語言人士，而比較少可能跟美國人。這個時候，當你已經知道美國或英國口音並不是最廣泛通用的口音的話，為什麼還非學得像美國人的發音不可？

第三，聽不懂的主要原因不是發音，而是偏見。

有社會語言學的研究發現，當你聽不懂某人的口音，大部分不是因為你沒辦法辨別對方所發出來的音，而是因為潛在意識裡認為「我講的就是標準，而對方講的帶有口音，所以我拒絕負擔為了解他我所需要做的努力」。換句話說，聽不懂不是因為發音，而是因為偏見。我有很多這樣的經驗。有很多學生曾經表示他們覺得我講話很難聽懂，因為我有日本口音。可是有研究調查顯示，日本口音的英文，是比中文口音的英語更容易辨別的。所以照理講，日式口音更容易聽懂才對。可是因為很多人有一種偏見，就是日本人的英文就是爛；所以還沒開始聽，就已經拒絕懂了。社會語言學家們也證明，並沒有根據，所謂「標準語言」比其他方言更好或更清楚易懂。這是主觀意識的問題。而就像大家都同意應該消除對某些種族或對殘障人士的偏見，我們也應該努力消除對不同口音的偏見。

要求學習者學會母語人士一樣的口音是不可能的，也沒有必要的。很多語言習得學的專家們都同意，成熟學習者要學會像母語人士一樣的發音，是不可能的（除了發音這點以外，第二語言人士卻也能達到非常高的語言能力；例如最近幾任聯合國秘書長，沒有一個是英美人士（現任是韓國人），很多以英語為官方語言的國家（菲律賓，新加坡，印度等）的領袖等，他們英文能力必定也比很多美國人都強吧）。有些學者認為，大人學不會口音是因為潛意識下他拒絕成為另外一個人；就我個人來說，我不會希望人家聽到我的英文時誤認我是美國人，因為我就不是嘛（特別在回教國家，千萬別被誤認是美國人，是會有危險的！）。那麼，明明知道這個目標是不可能達成的，還要求學生朝這個不可能的目標努力，而讓那些無法達到目標的學生感到沮喪，那不是很好笑嗎？這樣不合理的科目，恐怕只有英文吧！

因此，給學生的目標 (model)，不應該是母語人士，而是雖然帶有本地口音，但在國際場合上成功以英語工作的本地人士。學校製作教學錄影帶，請不要再用太多白人或國外長大的ＡＢＣ當演員，而多用一點帶有「在地味」口音的演員吧！否則，很多在台灣長大的小孩，只是因為自己沒有辦法達到像那些白人或ＡＢＣ那樣的口音，而感到自己的英文很遜，甚至完全放棄英文呢！

Pronunciation is not that important

In Taiwan, people pay too much attention to pronunciation when learning a foreign language. Often, people who have “native-like” American accents are considered good teachers. It sometimes even seems they consider accent more important than grammar and vocabulary, or even content! As is often the case, those who have “impeccable” native-like accents are those who started in their early childhood. Because they learned English before their cognitive skills have fully developed, if you transcribe what they are saying, you might notice that their grammar and vocabulary are quite “non-native-like”. Worse still, teachers are often hired solely on the basis of their native-like accent, without taking into consideration proficiency in other respects.

But the reality is, accent and pronunciation are not that important when it come to English. English is a language used mainly for international communication. The main purpose of learning English today is not to communicate with its native speakers. If communicating with native speakers was the sole purpose, as would be the case for learning, say, German or Japanese, it does make sense to try to sound as closely as possible to the native speaker. But if the purpose is to communicate with other second language speakers of English, the target would be to be able to communicate as successfully as possible, and not how native-like you can sound with lots of “道地” idioms and slangs.

And for international communication, native-speaker English is not the most useful model. There are studies that show that native speakers are not the most easily understood in international communication. Rather, someone with a strong, for example, Arabic accent, who speaks slowly and clearly without using difficult idioms and slangs, would be a more effective communicator.

Actually, this fact is quite clear from experience. When I first went to England, I felt it was much easier to understand my fellow overseas students from Spain, Germany and Indonesia, than English people. For starters, native speakers, especially students, don’t enunciate very well, and also tend to speak very fast. And they use lots of peculiar slangs and unfamiliar idioms that are difficult for second-language users of English to understand.

Nor is it that attaining native-likeness is desirable. How we use language reflects our identity. So the way I use English should reflect my own culture and identity, not that of an American or British. By trying to sound like a North American, you are assimilating yourself to North America, thus trying to become someone you are not. Besides, it is better nowadays not to be mistaken as an American, especially in certain countries!

In the first place, anyway, a native speaker accent is not attainable for many of us. If you didn’t start very early in your life, it is likely that you will never drop that “foreign” accent no matter how hard you try. There are theories that indicate that this is so because you want to protect your own identity unconsciously. Besides, if you are a teacher, you should already know very well how “unteachable” pronunciation is. So why waste our time trying to attain something which many specialists have already proven to be unattainable?

Speaking from my experience, excessive attention to accent also takes away due attention from grammar and vocabulary. So it is quite possible that you can speak English more fluently when you are paying less attention to pronunciation. This is definitely the case for me. So the days of using half my brain thinking how to sound British is over. The brain is for thinking some better stuff!

I studied in the UK. When I was there, I was a teenager. So, understandably, I had a lot of peer pressure to sound like other students around me. I tried very hard to sound like English young people, and I was quite successful in that attempt. In fact, many native speakers commented that my accent was native-like.

But soon after arriving in Taiwan, I realized that having a native-like accent was not always so useful. The job interviewer was a native-speaker so she rated my English highly, but the problem was that many of my students found it hard to understand me. Because I sounded differently from the way they were used to (Taiwanese students are generally exposed only to American English), some even complained to the school that my “Japanese accent” was too strong!

So I tried to drop my British accent. I started sounding like a “foreigner”, but it was very clear that people could understand me better. Not only that, I felt more confident because I no longer had to pretend to be what I was not in the first place: a native speaker of English from Britain.

My English now reflects my unusual background and who I am. Basically it is Japan English, because that’s where I first learned the language. And I became fluent in it while I was in Britain, so that explain the trace of British flavor in my English. However, most of my interlocutors coming from Taiwan and other Chinese-speaking backgrounds, I demonstrate feature of China/Taiwan English especially in syntax and lexis. Finally, I did my PhD in the Philippines, where I extensively used English in all domains of life; so definitely, my English is greatly influenced by Philippine English. (I suspect this is what makes my English easier to understand for my Taiwanese students. I picked up the rhotic “r” while in the Philippines. Not only that the Taiwanese are more used to American English, pronouncing the “r” makes it more orthographically faithful.)

Everybody can speak in more than one way. It is thoroughly natural and normal to sound differently in different situations. When I get caught up in the content and start paying less attention to accent, I notice that I sometimes switch back to my former non-rhotic accent. (Both Japan English and British English are non-rhotic, and I guess I find it more natural and easier to pronounce.) When I speak to my students or Filipinos, I notice that I immediately regain my rhotic R’s. And when I have to speak formally and pay extreme attention to speech, I suddenly start sounding British again! Another situation in which I unconsciously sound British is when I am with native speakers or my boss. I know that they look down on “foreign accents”, and that it might jeopardize my work!

So my advice is: Start sounding like yourself, not like a token native speaker.

Horse horse tiger tiger

昨天在廣播上聽到這樣的廣告：

外國人：”How are you?”

台灣人：”Horse horse tiger tiger”

外國人："What!?"

台灣人："馬馬虎虎啦！阿兜仔哪聽無！？"

Narrator: “你還在說台式英語嗎？快來參加...”

大有問題！這顯示Taiwan English還是被妖魔化。

這個廣告的問題包括：

一，用英語溝通的對象被定位成阿兜仔；

二，台式英語被妖魔化；

三，台灣英語和Chinglish被混為一談；

四，這樣的廣告被認為有效。

一，用英語溝通的對象被定位成阿兜仔

現在以英語做為第二語言的人遠超過以英語為母語的人。目前亞洲是使用英語人口最多的地區，而美國經濟正在沒落當中。所以你實際使用英語的對象，比較有可能是以英語當第二語言的人，特別是亞洲人。有科學根據顯示，跟這種人溝通，把英語說得像母語人士並不理想，因為母語人士習慣用一些特殊的俚語和片語，而且因為從小習慣說英語，發音並不是很清楚。

二，台式英語被妖魔化

因此，現在的世界上並沒有一種所謂「標準英語」。實際的情況是各種母語的人，帶著各種母語口音及特色的英語，在互相溝通。說一口美國白人口音的英語並不保證你能跟各種人有效地溝通。更何況，在９１１以後美國在世界上很多地區很不受歡迎，跟來自這種地區的人用英語溝通最好不要被誤以為是美國人。而且，雖然不是美國人，說話卻像是美國人，會被外國人認為你沒有健全地建立自我。

台灣人學習英語，學出來的是具有台灣特色的台灣英語，這是正常的，自然的。阿拉伯人說阿式英語，歐盟的人說歐式英語，他們每天用自己的英語在國際場合上辦事。為什麼只有台灣人非學一口實際上不存在的到底美式英語不可？

三，台灣英語和Chinglish被混為一談

好的台式英語，是保留台灣人的特色，同時也跟各國以英語為第二語言的人溝通沒有問題。為了用英語說出跟台灣獨特文化有關係的事物，有些字彙和文法會跟其他各國的英語不同，這也是正常的，而且大致上不會影響溝通。對方不懂的時候就加以說明，是溝通的基本常識；對方下次就懂了。實際上，long time no see和ketchup都是受中文影響的說法，久而久之已經被納入國際英語中。

而Chinglish指的是明顯錯誤的英語，會造成溝通上的問題，應該避免。雖然我認為horse horse tiger tiger已經被很多常跟以中文為母語的人接觸的外國人聽懂，所以不能斷然說「只是因為美國人不這麼說，所以這是錯誤的英語」，可是因為 ”so so” 這個已經存在的說法廣泛被接受而且比較簡單，所以跟不同母語的人溝通時應該說 "so so" 而不是”horse horse tiger tiger” 。

當然，跟有中文背景的人用英語溝通時，故意說成 "horse horse tiger tiger" ，可以建立跟對方的認同感，是不錯的溝通策略。

這個廣告的問題是，把 “horse horse tiger tiger” 這個Chinglish說成是「台式英語」。

四，這樣的廣告被認為有效

不過最大的問題應該是，這家業者認為這樣的廣告能夠有效吸引台灣民眾來參加他們的語言學習機構。也就是說，這個廣告的內容反射了一般民眾對學習英語的看法。

仍然活在過去那段學習英語的主要目的是跟美國人溝通的日子，不會因為英語已經成為世界共通語而作出學習上的調整，難怪台灣人的英語能力會輸給其他亞洲國家。