マレーシア人の言語

 マレーシア人の半分以上はマレー人、残りは中華系、インド人、欧州系などです。一般人の感覚としては、ムスリムであればマレー人と認識されるようです。マレー人は主に田舎に多く住んでいて、大都市では中華系が多数です。

マレー人以外で、家でマレー語を話している人はほぼいません。それで、都市によって、主要な言語が違います。例えば、クアラルンプールの街なかで一番良く聞くのは広東語、ペナンでは福建語（台湾語とほぼ同じ）、シブでは福州語（福建語と全然違う）、コタキナバルでは客家語、という具合です。

例えばクアラルンプールでは、自分の家庭で話す言語が英語であれ、潮州語であれ、外で知らない人と話す場合は広東語で、となります。ただ、福州語や海南語など、割りとマイナーな言語がメインの都市では、若い世代を中心に、華語（北京語）で話していることが多くなっています。華語は学校の授業の媒介語だし、話し言葉と書き言葉が一致しているからです。

このような言語の違いを、一般のマレー人はあまり認識していません。「中国人だから、中国語で話しているんだろう」ぐらいに思っている人が多いようです。

なお、インド系の人たちは、特に都市部では、お隣のシンガポールのように、家庭でも英語を話している人が多いようです。

こういうのは、実際に行って聞かないと、本当のところはわかりません。アンケート調査などをしても、社会的通念や、ナショナリズムが暗に求める建前を答えてくることが多々あります。

ここまで書いたのは、話し言葉のことです。読み書きになると、中華系の場合、中国語学校出身の場合は中国語で、マレー語学校（旧英語学校）出身の場合は英語で、ということになります。プラナカンという、古くから現地化した少数の華人は、上の世代はもっとマレー語を使っていたようですが、今は英語がメインです。中華系で、読み書きはマレー語でするし、マレー語新聞をとっている、というマレーシア人を私はまだ見たことがありません。

そんなわけで、華語も広東語も、ひいては英語もマレーシアの公用語ではありませんが、マレーシア人同士でこれらを使って話しているのは普通です。言語的には、マレー語のマレーシアとそれ以外のマレーシアが、同じ国土に共存しているような感じです。

台湾語と福建語

東南アジアの人が「福建語」と呼んでいるのは、福建省南部の泉州地区と漳州地区の言葉がいろいろに混ざったものです。フィリピンは泉州寄りで、ペナンは漳州寄りです。

 

福建省南部の港町アモイはイギリスの拠点だったので、周辺から人がたくさん集まって、この二つの地域の言葉が（割と泉州寄りに）混ざりました。キリスト教の宣教師は聖書をこのアモイ語に訳したり、辞書を作ったりしたので、ある程度標準化しました。福建省の中では少数派の言語なのに、Hokkienといえばこの言語を指すようになったのは、イギリス人のおかげです。

 

台湾北部の台北盆地やシンガポールは、アモイと泉漳両語の混ざり方が似ていた（どちらかというと泉州寄り）上に、イギリスの宣教師が訳した聖書も入ったので、アモイ語とほとんど同じ言葉をしゃべるようになりました。日本人は台湾を領有したときに台北を拠点にしたので、台湾語の辞書や教科書はこのアモイ語そっくりな台北の言葉になりました。今でも日本で売っている台湾語の教科書は、ほとんど台北よりの単語や発音です。

 

台湾では、地域によって、泉州寄りの言葉を喋っているところ（主に西部の海沿い）と漳州寄りのところ（西部内陸部と宜蘭）があります。南部の台南や高雄は、この台湾中の言葉が、割と漳州寄りに混ざって、新しい台湾語が発展しました。これが台湾の教科書やマスコミで使われている台湾語で、民主化時代以降、兵役や政治運動を通して男性を中心に広がりました。

 

東南アジアと台湾の福建語の違いは、もともと福建になかった西洋的や近代的なものや概念を、何語から借りたかです。マレーシア・シンガポールではマレー語と英語から、インドネシアではオランダ語から、フィリピンではスペイン語から、台湾では日本語から借りました。例えば、スーツのことをフィリピンでは「アメリカーノ」というのに、台湾では「セビロ」と言います。ただし戦後は北京語教育が普及したので、北京語を福建語読みした「セーツォン」もよく使われます。

 

香港やマカオには、インドネシアから移って来た華人がいっぱいいて、年配の世代は今でも福建語を使っています（子供たちには北京語で話しますが、結局彼らは広東語のモノリンガルに育ちます）。

 

違いはあるけれども、私はマレーシアやフィリピンに行って台湾語を喋って、ほとんど不自由なく通じました。実際、北京語以外の中国語が禁止されているシンガポールでも、台湾のテレビドラマの録画が、年配の世代を中心に人気がありました。

 

台湾人の中には、「台湾語」というからには台湾でしか通じないのか、と思っている人もいるかもしれません。香港や東南アジアに買い物に行ったとき、普段台湾で子供や外国人に聞かれたくないひそひそ話をするときに台湾語を使う癖がついつい出て、台湾語を喋ってしまうと、何を喋っているのかバレてしまう可能性があるので気をつけて。

 

余談ですが、今、日本に住んでいる福建省出身の人の多くは、福州の近くの福清の出身だそうです。そっちの方（福建省の北東部）は、アモイ語とは似ても似つかない言語を喋っています。福建省の言葉なのだから、彼らは自分たちが喋っているのを福建語というかもしれませんが、東南アジアでいう福建語や台湾語とは全然違う言葉で、全く通じないのであしからず。マレーシアのサラワクや、インドネシアの一部で話しているやつと近くて、Hokchiu とかHokchiaとか呼んでいます。台湾が有効支配している馬祖諸島でもこれに近いものを話しています。厳密には、福清語と福州語は違うが、福清人は多くが両方のバイリンガルだとも聞きます。福建省ではこの言語を話す人のほうがアモイ語を話す人より多いそうですが、東南アジアではマイナーな言語で、一部の群居地を除いては、周辺でメジャーな言葉に吸収されているようです。

 

私は福建語の未来に悲観的です。台湾を含め華人社会全体で北京語教育や現地語教育・英語教育が普及して、福建語はお祭りの儀式や教育を受けていないお年寄りとの言葉になっています。マレーシアなどでは若者が復興運動をやっていますが、影響力が今ひとつです。福建では強制的な北京語普及が行われていて、アモイの子供は半数以上福建語を話せないそうです。

 

こうなると、福建語存続のカギは台湾です。台湾では民主化以来、マスコミでも多く使われ、小学校の科目にもなっています。ですからほとんどの人が多少できますが、ほぼ台湾全土で、台湾語だけを日常的に使っている人たちは、やはり田舎のお年寄りなどが多い印象です。台湾語の牙城台南市での調査でも、小学生はほとんど家庭で北京語と英語しか使っておらず、台湾語を使うのは学校の台湾語の授業のときだけでした。最近、台湾政府が打ち出した「バイリンガル国家2030」という政策では、バイリンガルが指すのは北京語と英語のことです。このまま行くと、アイルランドのアイルランド語のように、象徴的な存在になってしまうでしょう。例えば、中国と対抗する意識を強調したい政治家が、普段の私生活は北京語と英語で行っているのに、演説のときだけわざと台湾語を使う、といった具合です。

 

台湾で、もともとは上から押し付けられた外来言語だった北京語ですが、台湾人に半世紀使用されて台湾のことを表現できるように台湾化して、学校や役所で使う「頭の言語」だけではなく、「心の言語」にもなっています。

 

最近、日本ではこの北京語を指して台湾華語という言い方も出てきましたが、私や私の家族は、詳細をいちいち説明するのは面倒くさいので、周りの日本人たちに対しては、この台湾化した北京語のことを敢えて「台湾語」と呼ぶときもあります。福建系の台湾人だけではなく、一部のお年寄りを除いたほぼ全員の台湾人に通じるのだから、福建語よりも、もっと「台湾語」と呼ばれる資格があるような気もしないではありません。

Teochew people

I once wrote that some Taiwanese people who identify themselves as Hokkien or Hakka might actually be descendants of Teochews.

Teochews are an interesting group of people among the overseas Chinese, whose ancestral land overlaps with that of Hakkas in the eastern part of Guangdong. Today, the main city is Swatow (Shantou) but it used to be Chaozhou in the past, from which the name of the group derive.

Although geographically from Guangdong, the Teochew language is closely related to Hokkien. Teochew spoken in places like Singapore is mutually intelligible with Hokkien, perhaps because it has been under the heavy influence from the latter, who form the majority there. But I heard that Teochew spoken in Swatow today is not readily intelligible to Hokkien speakers from Amoy.

The majority of ethnic Chinese in Thailand and Cambodia are Teochews, and even the royal family of the former has some Teochew ancestry.

The first Teochews who came into personal contact with me was a refugee family from Cambodia at the Chinese mass community back when it still met at Sophia University. That made me realize that the family running my favorite restaurant Cambodia in Takadanobaba actually was also Teochew.

The Singaporean exchange student I met also at the Chinese mass was also Teochew, and so was the family I stayed with when I was in Johor Baru, Malaysia, on my way to the UK back in 1992.

While I was in Hull, I once visited a Singaporean lady who married with a local English person. I remember she was also Teochew. The wife of one of my best friends from my Hull years is also Teochew, who come from an area close to Thai border on the east coast of Malaysia. Since Teochews from the majority of Thai Chinese, her family might have also moved from Thailand.

By the way, Mr. Li Ka-shing, one of the richest tycoons in Hong Kong, is also a Teochew and there's a YouTube video of him speaking in Teochew. Unfortunately, he is not a personal friend of mine.

Do you have any Teochew friends? Tell me about them.

Malaysians becoming rhotic

It's been ages since I last updated my blog.

I've decided to update it since both my parents and my brother are updating their blogs regularly.

So here's my post today. I've been noticing more and more younger generation Singaporeans, Malaysians and Hongkongers are starting to sound rhotic.

People say it's the influence of American media, but I don't buy it. Back then when I was there, all those places had lots of American programs on TV, but nobody was sounding rhotic.

I suspect one factor is the presence of Filipino domestic helpers in their households. But I noticed that  Hong Kong specialists are not very willing to admit the Philippine influence. But if you are brought up by a Filipina since young, it's inevitable that you end up having a rhotic accent, even if your local English teacher at school is non-rhotic.

So, anyway, I was talking to a Malaysian today, and noticed something interesting.

Malaysians who use English at home and in their social lives all the time since young, many of whom are Chinese and Indians, tend to be more non-rhotic. They sound very similar to Singaporeans to me.

But those Malaysians who speak from non-English speaking backgrounds (Bornean ethnic groups, Chinese-educated Chinese, etc.) who learn English later on in their lives as a foreign language, tend to have more American-like accents and therefore more rhotic.

A similar thing can perhaps be said about Hong Kong. When I went to a university in Hong Kong several years ago to attend a conference, many students proficient in English are mainlanders, and they had American-oriented accents.

In Singapore, socially-upward people, especially females, tend to be more rhotic. (I read an academic article before that said a rhotic accent is considered to be the proper pronunciation in Singapore despite the fact that Standard Singapore English is supposed to be RP-based.)

I wonder if this spread of rhoticity and formerly non-rhotic Southeast Asia is somehow related to the worldwide spread of Philippine English!

Cantonese as an identity marker among Malaysians residing in Taiwan

Thanks to my former student Goh Yi-yee, I've got those two  CNY TV commercials, one partly and the other entirely in Cantonese. The fact that Malay-owned companies choose to use Cantonese, not Hokkien or Mandarin, when trying to reach maximum Chinese-Malaysian audience shows how influential Cantonese is in Malaysia. Which is a bit strange come to think of it...

When I was in Malaysia, I hardly heard any Cantonese spoken except in Kuala Lumpur (KL) and Ipoh, where it is the lingua franca. So it was a mystery that almost all Chinese being heard on Malaysian TV and radio was Cantonese, when the biggest "dialect" group in Malaysia is actually Hokkien. But I was guessing that it must have been because the TV stations are in KL and many programs were imported from Hong Kong, so people had started thinking Cantonese was somehow cool.

Another big surprise, when I started having a lot of Chinese-educated Malaysians among my students here in Taiwan, was that Cantonese seemed to be an identity marker for them, regardless of whether they are ethnic Cantonese or not, or whether they come from Cantonese-speaking parts of Malaysia such as KL or Ipoh. In fact, even those from Penang, the heartland of Zhangzhou-accented Hokkien, East Malaysia where Cantonese people are almost non-existent, or southern peninsulr Malaysia, where Mandarin is much more prevalent than Cantonese because of the Singapore influence, were conversing with each other in Cantonese. And that was here in Taiwan, where practically nobody understands a word of Cantonese, perhaps with the only exception of "hou sai lei"!

Here are the results of my speculation after having lengthy conversations with my former and current Malaysian students.

Possible reason one: Identity marker
Like I said, most Taiwanese people don't have a clue when they hear Cantonese. But they do understand Mandarin spoken among Malaysians. So Cantonese can function as a fraternity language among Malaysians. That is to say, it makes them feel they are a part of the Malaysian community here. They're making themselves different from the Taiwanese who surround them. But why not other dialects? Why not Malay?

Possible reason two: Status of Cantonese in Malaysia itself
As I wrote at the beginning, Cantonese is considered something of a cool language in Malaysia, compared with other codes (=languages/dialects). Like I said in the last blog post, there is a domain segregation between Mandarin and Cantonese in central peninsular Malaysia. Mandarin is for "formal" occasions. Cantonese is for chit-chat among friends. This is exemplified in Malaysian FM stations. There, news reports on the hour are in Mandarin, and then it suddenly switches to Cantonese when the DJ's informal talk starts. Its informality makes it more suitable to be a fraternity code.

Possible reason three: The only non-Mandarin lingua franca
So Mandarin is out. Firstly because too many Taiwanese understand it! And secondly because it's too formal to be fraternal. Then, why not other "dialects", such as Hakka or even Teochew? (Hokkien is out, because Taiwanese understand it.) Well, excluding the important exceptions of Penang and Singapore where Hokkien is the lingua franca, can you think of anywhere in Malaysia where Chinese people from all ethno-linguistic subgroups speak with each other in a dialect? Nope, except Cantonese! Can non-Hakka people in some parts of Selangor or Kota Kinabalu speak Hakka? Can Hokkien people in Johor Baru speak Teochew and Foochow? Hardly, right? Cantonese is the only non-Mandarin "dialect" that is robust enough to be a lingua franca. (As for the reasons for its robustness, I've already written in another blog post. It's to do with British Hong Kong government's "clandestine" language policy.)

Possible reason four: Poor command of Malay
It's hard for non-Malaysians to believe, but it's true that there are lots of Malaysians who can't speak much Malay. Those who come to Taiwan to study are mostly from independent Chinese schools, so they've hardly had any chance to use Malay is all their lives. The Malay language is associated with ethnic Malays, who make up about the half of the total Malaysian population. And it's an open secret that many non-Malay Malaysians hold feelings ranging from ambivalent to sheer grudge towards Malays, whom many consider as receiving "undeserved" benefits. So the situation is totally different from those of Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines. There, many Chinese people are monolingual in the national languages of the respective countries. On the other hand in Malaysia, Malay cannot be an identity marker for Chinese Malaysians living in Taiwan, for the practical reason that many can't speak it well in the first place.

So its got to be Cantonese. Nei chi m chi a?

Singapore influence? Fluent Mandarin speakers in southern peninsular Malaysia

The language life of young Chinese Malaysians in southern Malaysia has been influenced by the language policy of neighboring Singapore. This could be one of the examples of an interesting situation where the language policy of one country is affecting the populace in another.

Mandarin has different functions among Chinese-educated Malaysians in different parts of the country. I learned this from a conversation with one of my former students from Malaysia. I realized that I had been overgeneralizing. Here, I'm talking about those Chinese Malaysians who come from "Independent" Chinese Schools, in which that the sole medium of instruction is Mandarin. The situation in Malaysia is complex. So I'm excluding those who were educated in "National Form" Chinese schools, in which the medium of instruction is Malay or English at least for some subjects.

In southern peninsular Malaysia, namely Johor and Malacca, Mandarin has become the dominant language for almost all domains of life for younger people. This might be due to the influence of Singapore media, especially TV. Malacca is about the furthest point Singapore terrestrial TV signals can reach. In Singapore, the Chinese "dialects" are banned from public square since of the "Speak Mandarin Campaign". Therefore, all Singaporean Chinese TV programs are either produced in Mandarin or dubbed in it. In Singapore, as in Taiwan, Hong Kong films dubbed in Mandarin. (Which, I think, really sucks, in my opinion... It's quite daft to see "Fatt Gor" speaking in flunet Bejing-accent Mandarin!) Although Malaysian TV stations carry some programs in Cantonese, people in southern Malaysia generally prefer Singaporean TV stations. Because of this, students and graduates of independent Chinese schools in Johor are very fluent in Mandarin, and have an accent akin to standard Taiwanese Mandarin. If you walk into one of those schools now, you will hear students chit-chatting and gossiping in fluent Mandarin.

The situation is a little different in the rest of peninsular Malaysia. The Chinese communities in several important cities, such as Kuala Lumpur (KL) and Ipoh, are predominantly Cantonese-speaking. TV and radio stations are largely in KL, so this explains why Cantonese is so prevalent in Malaysia, even though Hokkien is the biggest Chinese ethnic group there. The Chinese-educated residents in those areas use Cantonese to converse with each other for daily purposes. Even though the medium of instruction is Mandarin, at least nominally, it is used only for formal situations, such as public ceremonies, speech contests, etc. Thus, people there feel more comfortable in Cantonese, while feeling insecure about their strongly-accented Mandarin. So Mandarin is restricted to formal domains. (By the way, I'm very interested in Cantonese being an identity marker for Chinese Malaysians residing in Taiwan. This is another story...)

The situation is similar in other cities in northern peninsular Malaysia, except that the dominant "dialect" may be Hokkien or Hakka. I once visited a city in the extreme north, where an Islamic political party has held power for a long time. I tried to socialize with students of a so-called Mandarin-medium school. Not only they spoke almost no Malay at all, they didn't even speak Mandarin well. So how do they communicate with each other? Hokkien, when at school or in town; and their own home "dialect", such as Cantonese or Teochew, when at home.

Sorry for sidetracking, but this suddenly reminded me of another interesting episode (for me). In that city in northern peninsular Malaysia, Chinese people watched Thai TV all the time. I asked them why. They said Thai pop music sounded better than Malaysian, especially Malay music, and that Thai TV programs were more entertainment-oriented than Muslim Malaysia. But do they understand the Thai language? Nope. I found out the answer when I visited the Thai side of the boarder. Thai people there spoke Hokkien! This was because there are many Malaysian Chinese tourists who visit there from Penang, a Hokkien-speaking city! This is another example of the language situation of one country influencing another, by the way.